Gunung Merapi (Jawa Tengah)


Gunung Merapi
Ketinggian 2,968 meter
Location
Lokasi Bersempadan Jawa Tengah / Yogyakarta (Indonesia)
Koordinat 7°32′S, 110°26′E
Geologi
Jenis Stratovolcano
Umur batu 400,000 tahun
Letusan terakhir 2006

Gunung Merapi adalah sebuah gunung berapi di Jawa Tengah, Indonesia. Ia merupakan gunung berapi yang paling aktif di Indonesia dan telah meletus sebanyak 68 kali semenjak 1548. Ia berdekatan dengan bandaraya Yogyakarta, dan banyak penduduk tinggal di hilir gunung berapi berkenaan, dengan perkampungan paling tinggi 1700 m di atas paras laut. Oleh kerana bahayanya kepada kawasan berpendudukan ini, ia telah dinamai sebagai satu Gunung Berapi Dekad ini.

Terdapat satu lagi gunung berapi Indonesia yang hampir sama namanya iaitu Gunung Marapi, di Sumatera Barat.

Letupan terbaru sebelum ini adalah pada 1992 dan berterusan selama sepuluh tahun. Pada masa itu, satu kubah lava telah terpicit keluar, membesar hingga satu meter sehari. Dalam tahun 1994, kubah sampai di pinggir kawah, dan daripada situ, jatuhan batu daripada kubah menghasilkan aliran piroklas yang berulangkali. Pada akhir 1994 hampir keseluruhan kubah runtuh, menjana aliran piroklas yang sangat besar, yang mana telah bergerak beberapa kilometer daripada puncak dan telah membunuh 43 orang.



Berikutan daripada letupan besar pada November 1994, satu kubah telah terbentuk di kawah, dan letusan-letusan kecil bersambungan hingga beberapa tahun, menjana runtuhan lava dan aliran piroklas setiap hari. Letupan berakhir pada akhir 2002.
[sunting] Letupan 2006

Pada April 2006, aktiviti seismos telah bertambah dalam selang waktu yang semakin berulang dan terdapat bonjolan di dalam kon gunung berapi yang menunjukkan letusan baru adalah hampir. Pihak berkuasa meletakkan kampung kejiranan dalam keadaan berjaga-jaga dan bersedia. Pada 19 April, asap dari kawah menjangkau ketinggian 400 meter, berbanding dengan hanya 75 meter pada hari sebelumnya. Pada 23 April, selepas sembilan gempa mengisyaratkan pergerakan magma, hampir 600 orang penduduk tua dan bayi di lereng gunung dipindahkan, dan sebahagian rumah mereka diambil alih oleh pelancong-pelancong yang ditarik ke kawasan itu[2].

Pada awal Mei, lahar bermula mengalir dengan aktif. Pada 11 Mei, dengan aliran lahara menjadi tetap, 17,000 orang diarahkan berpindah [3]. Kemudian pada 13 Mei, pemerintah Indonesia menaikkan taraf berjaga-jaga kepada taraf tertinggi, merah, dan mengarahkan pemindahan semua penduduk dengan segera. Bilangan letusan telah bertambah, dan terdapat laporan yang mengatakan letupan besar telah berlaku [4]. Jika aliran piroklas berlaku, risiko di kampung berhampiran adalah amat tinggi, tetapi ada penduduk yang tetap berani kembali ke kampung, dengan berkata bahawa mereka perlu menjaga binatang peliharaan dan tanaman. Pada 15 Mei, Gunung Merapi meletup mengeluarkan gas panas, debu dan serpihan batu. Awan piroklas berkembang sehingga 4 km, dan debu menutup tanaman dan bumbung rimah di Ketep, 10 km dari kaki gunung. Pada 16 Mei, aktiviti gunung telah berkurang sedikit tetapi masih berbahaya.




Gunung berapi adalah bukaan, atau rekahan, pada permukaan atau kerak Bumi, yang membenarkan gas, abu, dan batu cair yang panas bebas jauh di dalam bawah permukaan bumi. Aktiviti gunung berapi membabitkan extrusion of rock yang cenderung membentuk gunung atau ciri-ciri berbentuk gunung melalui tempoh masa.

Gunung berapi biasanya terdapat di mana plak tetonik berpisah atau bertembung. Rabung tengah laut, seperti Rabung Tengah Atlantik (Mid-Atlantic Ridge), adalah contoh plak tetonik berpisah; Lingkaran Api Pasifik pula mempunyai contoh gunung berapi yang terhasil akibat pertembungan plak tetonik. Sebaliknya, gunung berapi biasanya tidak terhasil di mana dua plak tetonik bergesel sesama sendiri. Gunung berapi juga boleh terbentuk di kawasan di mana terdapat renggangan pada kerak Bumi dan di mana kerak Bumi menjadi nipis (di kenali sebagai gunung berapi antaraplat bukan titik panas), seperti di Lembah Rift Afrika (African Rift Valley), Rhine Graben Eropah dengan gunung berapi Eifelnya, Lapangan gunung berapi Wells Gray-Clearwater dan Rio Grande Rift di Amerika Utara.

Akhir sekali, gunung berapi boleh dihasilkan melalui pluma mantel (mantle plumes), yang dikenali sebagai titik panas; titik panas ini boleh berlaku jauh dari sempadan plak, seperti kepulauan Hawai. Amat menarik, gunung berapi titik panas juga didapati di tempat lain di sistem suria, terutamanya pada bulan dan planet berbatu.

Jenis-jenis gunung berapi

Gunung berapi terdapat dalam beberapa bentuk sepanjang kitaran hayatnya. Gunung berapi yang aktif mungkin bertukar menjadi separuh aktif, menjadi pendam, sebelum akhirnya menjadi tidak aktif atau mati. Bagaimanapun gunung berapi mampu menjadi pendam selama tempoh 610 tahun sebelum bertukar menjadi aktif semula. Oleh itu, sukar untuk menentukan keadaan sebenar sesuatu gunung berapi itu, samada sesebuah gunung berapi itu berada dalam tempoh pendam atau telah mati.



Apabila gunung berapi meletus, magma yang terkandung di dalam kamar magma di bawah gunung berapi meletus keluar sebagai lahar atau lava. Selain daripada aliran lava, kemusnahan oleh gunung berapi disebabkan melalui pelbagai cara seperti berikut :-

1. Aliran lava.
2. Letusan gunung berapi.
3. Aliran lumpur.
4. Abu.
5. Kebakaran hutan.
6. Gas beracun.
7. Gelombang tsunami.
8. Gempa bumi.

10 GEMPA BUMI TERBESAR DI DUNIA

Largest Earthquakes in the World Since 1900

Location Date UTC Magnitude Lat. Long. Reference
1. Chile 1960 05 22 9.5 -38.24 -73.05 Kanamori, 1977
2. Prince William Sound, Alaska 1964 03 28 9.2 61.02 -147.65 Kanamori, 1977
3. Off the West Coast of Northern Sumatra 2004 12 26 9.1 3.30 95.78 Park et al., 2005
4. Kamchatka 1952 11 04 9.0 52.76 160.06 Kanamori, 1977
5. Off the Coast of Ecuador 1906 01 31 8.8 1.0 -81.5 Kanamori, 1977
6. Rat Islands, Alaska 1965 02 04 8.7 51.21 178.50 Kanamori, 1977
7. Northern Sumatra, Indonesia 2005 03 28 8.6 2.08 97.01 PDE
8. Assam - Tibet 1950 08 15 8.6 28.5 96.5 Kanamori, 1977
9. Andreanof Islands, Alaska 1957 03 09 8.6 51.56 -175.39 Johnson et al., 1994
10. Southern Sumatra, Indonesia 2007 09 12 8.5 -4.438 101.367 PDE
11. Banda Sea, Indonesia 1938 02 01 8.5 -5.05 131.62 Okal and Reymond, 2003
12. Kamchatka 1923 02 03 8.5 54.0 161.0 Kanamori, 1988
13. Chile-Argentina Border 1922 11 11 8.5 -28.55 -70.50 Kanamori, 1977
14. Kuril Islands 1963 10 13 8.5 44.9 149.6 Kanamori, 1977
Updated 2008 May 14



Chile
1960 May 22 19:11:14 UTC
Magnitude 9.5

The Largest Earthquake in the World

Chile
Approximately 1,655 killed, 3,000 injured, 2,000,000 homeless, and $550 million damage in southern Chile; tsunami caused 61 deaths, $75 million damage in Hawaii; 138 deaths and $50 million damage in Japan; 32 dead and missing in the Philippines; and $500,000 damage to the west coast of the United States.

Gempa bumi adalah getaran yang terjadi di permukaan bumi yang dikarenakan oleh adanya pergerakan kerak atau lempeng bumi. Alat pengukur atau pencatat gempa bumi disebut dengan seismometer atau dikenal juga dengan nama seismograph. Besarnya suatu gempa bumi dinyatakan dalam Skala Richter. Gempa bumi kebanyakan terjadi karena adanya pelepasan energi karena adanya lempengan atau kerak bumi yang bergerak, disamping itu juga bisa disebabkan karena adanya pergerakan magma dalam gunung berapi, adanya penumpukan sejumlah massa air yang besar di balik dam dan juga bisa disebabkan dari peledakan bahan peledak.

Berikut adalah 10 Gempa Bumi Paling Dahsyat Di Dunia:

1. Gempa Bumi Shaanxi



Gempa bumi paling mematikan dalam sejarah yang terjadi pada 14 Februari 1556 di Shaanxi, Cina diperkirakan menewaskan tidak kurang dari 830.000 orang. Gempa bumi ini tercatat sebesar 8.0 skala richter.


2. Gempa Bumi Tangshan



Gempa bumi ini terjadi pada 28 Juli 1976 di Tangshan Hebei, china. Gempa bumi ini diperkirakan menewaskan sekitar 255.000 orang. Gempa ini berlangsung pada pagi hari dan diperkirakan berlangsung dalam waktu 10 detik dengan skala 8.o Richter.

3. Gempa Bumi Haiyuan



Gempa bumi yang terjadi pada 16 Desember 1920 di kota Haiyuan, Ningxia, China ini mengakibatkan setidaknya 240.000 jiwa melayang. Besarnya gempa Haiyun sekitar 7.8-8.5 skala richter.

4. Gempa Bumi Aleppo



Gempa bumi yang berpusat di kota Aleppo, Syria pada 11 Oktober 1138 ini menewaskan setidaknya 230.000 orang. Besarnya gempa yang terukur sebesar 8.5 skala richter.


5. Gempa Bumi Samudera India

Gempa bumi ini terjadi pada 26 Desember 2004 di Samudra Hindia, lepas pantai barat Aceh. Gempa ini berkekuatan 9.3 skala Richter, yang merupakan gempa bumi terbesar di asia tenggara dalam kurun waktu 40 tahun belakangan ini. Gempa bumi ini juga menyebabkan terjadinya gelombang tsunami dan menewaskan kurang lebih 230.000 jiwa.

6. Gempa Bumi Damghan
Gempa bumi ini berpusat di negara Iran pada tahun 856 dan menewaskan setidaknya 200.000 jiwa.

7. Gempa Bumi Ardabil
Gempa bumi yang mengakibatkan korban jiwa sebesar 150.000 jiwa ini berpusat di Iran pada tahun 893.

8. Gempa Bumi Hokkaidō
Gempa bumi Hokkaidō terjadi di Jepang pada tahun 1730 dan menewaskan sekurangnya 137.000 jiwa melayang.

9. Gempa Bumi Ashgabat
Gempa bumi ini menewaskan sekitar 110.000 korban jiwa di Ashgabat, Turkmenistan pada 5 Oktober 1948. Gempa bumi tercatat sebesar 7.3 skala richter.

10. Gempa Bumi Kanto
Gempa bumi Kanto berpusat di dataran Kanto di Pulau Honshu Jepun pada tanggal 1 September 1923 dan menewaskan sekitar 105.000 orang. Gempa bumi ini diperkirakan sebesar 7.9-8.4 skala richter.

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Earthquake Facts

Seismic Waves

"When an earthquake fault ruptures, it causes two types of deformation: static; and dynamic. Static deformation is the permanent displacement of the ground due to the event. The earthquake cycle progresses from a fault that is not under stress, to a stressed fault as the plate tectonic motions driving the fault slowly proceed, to rupture during an earthquake and a newly-relaxed but deformed state."

This more detailed exposition should enhance your understanding of seismic waves. Think of these waves as a bundle of information. Techniques from the broad field of signal processing are applied to extract information about the processes that interacted to produce and modify the waves.



Earthquake Facts

1. The largest recorded earthquake in the United States was a magnitude 9.2 that struck Prince William Sound, Alaska on Good Friday, March 28, 1964 UTC.

2. The largest recorded earthquake in the world was a magnitude 9.5 (Mw) in Chile on May 22, 1960.

California

3. The earliest reported earthquake in California was felt in 1769 by the exploring expedition of Gaspar de Portola while the group was camping about 48 kilometers (30 miles) southeast of Los Angeles.



4. Before electronics allowed recordings of large earthquakes, scientists built large spring-pendulum seismometers in an attempt to record the long-period motion produced by such quakes. The largest one weighed about 15 tons. There is a medium-sized one three stories high in Mexico City that is still in operation.

5. The average rate of motion across the San Andreas Fault Zone during the past 3 million years is 56 mm/yr (2 in/yr). This is about the same rate at which your fingernails grow. Assuming this rate continues, scientists project that Los Angeles and San Francisco will be adjacent to one another in approximately 15 million years.



6. The East African Rift System is a 50-60 km (31-37 miles) wide zone of active volcanics and faulting that extends north-south in eastern Africa for more than 3000 km (1864 miles) from Ethiopia in the north to Zambezi in the south. It is a rare example of an active continental rift zone, where a continental plate is attempting to split into two plates which are moving away from one another.

P waves

7. The first "pendulum seismoscope" to measure the shaking of the ground during an earthquake was developed in 1751, and it wasn't until 1855 that faults were recognized as the source of earthquakes.

8. Moonquakes ("earthquakes" on the moon) do occur, but they happen less frequently and have smaller magnitudes than earthquakes on the Earth. It appears they are related to the tidal stresses associated with the varying distance between the Earth and Moon. They also occur at great depth, about halfway between the surface and the center of the moon.

9. Although both are sea waves, a tsunami and a tidal wave are two different unrelated phenomenona. A tidal wave is a shallow water wave caused by the gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. A tsunami is a sea wave caused by an underwater earthquake or landslide (usually triggered by an earthquake) displacing the ocean water.

10. The hypocenter of an earthquake is the location beneath the earth's surface where the rupture of the fault begins. The epicenter of an earthquake is the location directly above the hypocenter on the surface of the earth.

Pacific Basin

11. The greatest mountain range is the Mid-Ocean Ridge, extending 64,374 km (40,000 mi) from the Arctic Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean, around Africa, Asia, and Australia, and under the Pacific Ocean to the west coast of North America. It has a greatest height of 4207 m (13,800 ft) above the base ocean depth.

12. The world's greatest land mountain range is the Himalaya-Karakoram. It countains 96 of the world's 109 peaks of over 7317 m (24,000 ft). The longest range is the Andes of South America which is 7564 km (4700 mi) in length. Both were created bythe movement of tectonic plates.

13. It is estimated that there are 500,000 detectable earthquakes in the world each year. 100,000 of those can be felt, and 100 of them cause damage.

14. It is thought that more damage was done by the resulting fire after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake than by the earthquake itself.

15. A seiche (pronounced SAYSH) is what happens in the swimming pools of Californians during and after an earthquake. It is "an internal wave oscillating in a body of water" or, in other words, it is the sloshing of the water in your swimming pool, or any body of water, caused by the ground shaking in an earthquake. It may continue for a few moments or hours, long after the generating force is gone. A seiche can also be caused by wind or tides.

mid-Atlantic Ridge

16. Each year the southern California area has about 10,000 earthquakes. Most of them are so small that they are not felt. Only several hundred are greater than magnitude 3.0, and only about 15-20 are greater than magnitude 4.0. If there is a large earthquake, however, the aftershock sequence will produce many more earthquakes of all magnitudes for many months.

17. The magnitude of an earthquake is a measured value of the earthquake size. The magnitude is the same no matter where you are, or how strong or weak the shaking was in various locations.
The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the shaking created by the earthquake, and this value does vary with location.

18. The Wasatch Range, with its outstanding ski areas, runs North-South through Utah, and like all mountain ranges it was produced by a series of earthquakes. The 386 km (240-mile)-long Wasatch Fault is made up of several segments, each capable of producing up to a M7.5 earthquake. During the past 6000 years, there has been a M6.5+ about once every 350 years, and it has been about 350 years since the last powerful earthquake, which was on the Nephi segment.

19. There is no such thing as "earthquake weather". Statistically, there is an equal distribution of earthquakes in cold weather, hot weather, rainy weather, etc. Furthermore, there is no physical way that the weather could affect the forces several miles beneath the surface of the earth. The changes in barometric pressure in the atmosphere are very small compared to the forces in the crust, and the effect of the barometric pressure does not reach beneath the soil.



20. From 1975-1995 there were only four states that did not have any earthquakes. They were: Florida, Iowa, North Dakota, and Wisconsin.

21. The core of the earth was the first internal structural element to be identified. In 1906 R.D. Oldham discovered it from his studies of earthquake records. The inner core is solid, and the outer core is liquid and so does not transmit the shear wave energy released during an earthquake.

S Amer

22. The swimming pool at the University of Arizona in Tucson lost water from sloshing (seiche) caused by the 1985 M8.1 Michoacan, Mexico earthquake 2000 km (1240 miles) away.

23. Earthquakes occur in the central portion of the United States too! Some very powerful earthquakes occurred along the New Madrid fault in the Mississippi Valley in 1811-1812. Because of the crustal structure in the Central US which efficiently propagates seismic energy, shaking from earthquakes in this part of the country are felt at a much greater distance from the epicenters than similar size quakes in the Western US.

24. Most earthquakes occur at depths of less than 80 km (50 miles) from the Earth's surface.

25. The San Andreas fault is NOT a single, continuous fault, but rather is actually a fault zone made up of many segments. Movement may occur along any of the many fault segments along the zone at any time. The San Andreas fault system is more that 1300 km (800 miles) long, and in some spots is as much as 16 km (10 miles) deep.

26. The world's deadliest recorded earthquake occurred in 1556 in central China. It struck a region where most people lived in caves carved from soft rock. These dwellings collapsed during the earthquake, killing an estimated 830,000 people. In 1976 another deadly earthquake struck in Tangshan, China, where more than 250,000 people were killed.

27. Florida and North Dakota have the smallest number of earthquakes in the United States.

ocean-cont collision

28. The deepest earthquakes typically occur at plate boundaries where the Earth's crust is being subducted into the Earth's mantle. These occur as deep as 750 km (400 miles) below the surface.

29. Alaska is the most earthquake-prone state and one of the most seismically active regions in the world. Alaska experiences a magnitude 7 earthquake almost every year, and a magnitude 8 or greater earthquake on average every 14 years.

30. The majority of the earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur along plate boundaries such as the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American plate. One of the most active plate boundaries where earthquakes and eruptions are frequent, for example, is around the massive Pacific Plate commonly referred to as the Pacific Ring of Fire.

31. The earliest recorded evidence of an earthquake has been traced back to 1831 BC in the Shandong province of China, but there is a fairly complete record starting in 780 BC during the Zhou Dynasty in China.

32. It was recognized as early as 350 BC by the Greek scientist Aristotle that soft ground shakes more than hard rock in an earthquake.

33. The cause of earthquakes was stated correctly in 1760 by British engineer John Michell, one of the first fathers of seismology, in a memoir where he wrote that earthquakes and the waves of energy that they make are caused by "shifting masses of rock miles below the surface".

34. In 1663 the European settlers experienced their first earthquake in America.

35. Human beings can detect sounds in the frequency range 20-10,000 Hertz. If a P wave refracts out of the rock surface into the air, and it has a frequency in the audible range, it will be heard as a rumble. Most earthquake waves have a frequency of less than 20 Hz, so the waves themselves are usually not heard. Most of the rumbling noise heard during an earthquake is the building and its contents moving.

36. When the Chilean earthquake occurred in 1960, seismographs recorded seismic waves that traveled all around the Earth. These seismic waves shook the entire earth for many days! This phenomenon is called the free oscillation of the Earth.

37. The origin of the name of the San Andreas Fault is often cited as the San Andreas Lake. However, based on some 1895 and 1908 reports by geologist A.C. Lawson, who named the fault, the name was actually taken from the San Andreas Valley. He likely did not realize at the time that the fault ran almost the entire length of California!

38. The interior of Antarctica has icequakes which, although they are much smaller, are perhaps more frequent than earthquakes in Antarctica. The icequakes are similar to earthquakes, but occur within the ice sheet itself instead of the land underneath the ice. Some of our polar observers have told us they can hear the icequakes and see them on the South Pole seismograph station, but they are much too small to be seen on enough stations to obtain a location.

CHINA

China Geography - 2002
http://www.greekorthodoxchurch.org/wfb2002/china/china_geography.html
SOURCE: 2002 CIA WORLD FACTBOOK

Location Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam

Geographic coordinates 35 00 N, 105 00 E



Map references Asia

Area
total: 9,596,960 sq km
land: 9,326,410 sq km
water: 270,550 sq km

Area - comparative slightly smaller than the US

Land boundaries
total: 22,147.34 km
border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,677 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km




Coastline 14,500 km

Maritime claims
contiguous zone: 24 NM
exclusive economic zone: 200 NM
continental shelf: 200 NM or to the edge of the continental margin
territorial sea: 12 NM

Climate extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north



Terrain mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east

Elevation extremes
lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m
highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)

Natural resources coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest)



Land use
arable land: 13%
permanent crops: 1%
other: 86% (1998 est.)

Irrigated land 525,800 sq km (1998 est.)

Natural hazards frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts; land subsidence

Environment - current issues air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species




Environment - international agreements
party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol

Geography - note world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US); Mount Everest on the border with Nepal, is the world's tallest peak

Kepelbagaian sumber tenaga diantaranya ialah biogas , angin, petroleum, suria dan air.

1. BIOGAS

Tenaga biogas boleh dihasil daripada kitaran semula bahan buangan domestik dan juga pereputan bahan buangan pertanian. Setiap hari berjuta–juta tan bahan dibuang tanpa dikitar semula, yang mengakibatkan pembaziran tenaga yang berharga. Pereputan bahan buangan domestik dan bahan buangan pertanian akan menghasilkan gas metana yang sangat berguna didalam pembekalan tenaga. Gas ini terbentuk apabila bakteria menyerang bahan buangan yang mereput. Gas ini dikumpul dan digunakan untuk menghasilkan elektrik dan juga sebagai bahan api untuk menjalankan jentera. Gas ini juga digunakan untuk memasak dan menyalakan lampu. Kebanyakan negara maju, biogas sedang dihasilkan. Di Belanda misalnya, industri tenusunya sangat maju tetapi menghadapi masalah dalam pembuangan najis. Najis disebarkan dimerata ladang menyebabkan kebanyakan tempat ditenggelami najis haiwan. Oleh itu penghadang digunakan bagi membolehkan bahan buangan menghasilkan biogas. Gas ini digunakan untuk menjanakan elektrik dengan bantuan enjin berkuasa kecil. Setelah biogas diambil, bahan buangan diproses menjadi baja.


2. ANGIN

Kuasa angin telah digunakan beratus–ratus tahun dahulu untuk melayarkan kapal layar dan memutarkan kincir angin. Angin telah digunakan sebagai sumber-sumber tenaga untuk menjanakan kuasa elektrik. Kelajuan angin akan menggerakkan kincir angin bagi menjana tenaga elektrik. Kuasa angin bergantung pada kelajuan angin. Sekiranya satu tempat mempunyai kelajuan purata angin dua kali ganda kelajuan ditempat lain, maka kincir angin yang pertama akan menghasilkan lapan kali ganda tenaga seperti yang dihasilkan oleh kincir angin yang serupa ditempat lain. Kuasa angin mempunyai dua kelebihan utama berbanding dengan sumber tenaga yang lain pertama, kincir angin yang moden dapat dibina dalam masa yang singkat. Kedua, bagi kebanyakan negara angin banyak terjadi pada musim sejuk ketika elektrik diperlukan dengan banyaknya. Kuasa angin telah digunakan untuk menghasilkan elektrik dengan penggunaan kincir angin, yang mana batang yang diputar oleh bilah menjalankan sebuah penjana elektrik. Penggunaan kincir angin untuk menghasilkan tenaga elektrik adalah lebih murah dan selamat. Negara–negara maju telah mula membangunkan kincir angin bagi menghasilkan elektrik kerana ianya dapat menjimatkan kos Untuk membolehkan kincir angin berfungsi dengan lebih efektif, tapak untuk menempatkan kincir angin hendaklah dipilih berdasarkan kelajuan, kekuatan dan arah angin.



3. SURIA

Matahari penting kepada manusia kerana membekalkan cahaya dan haba di bumi. Kebanyakan tenaga lain seperti angin pada asalnya berpunca daripada tenaga matahari. Tenaga dikeluarkan apabila bahan api fosil dibakar, merupakan tenaga matahari yang tersimpan di dalam tumbuhan sejak berjuta-juta tahun yang lalu. Apabila tenaga daripada matahari memancar ke atas permukaan daun, tenaga ini ditukar kepada tenaga keupayaan kima dan disimpan dalam tumbuhan melalui proses fotosintesis.

Tenaga suria adalah tenaga yang diperolehi secara terus daripada matahari. Ia digunakan di dalam pelbagai bidang pertanian. Haba daripada matahari digunakan untuk memanaskan ternakan terutamanya di musim sejuk. Struktur rumah hijau direkabentuk agar tumbuhan dapat tumbuh di dalam persekitaran yang terkawal. Rumah hijau direka bagi membolehkannya memerangkap tenaga daripada matahari untuk digunakan dalam fotosintesis. Sebahagian besar tenaga adalah disimpan dalam tumbuhan.

Matahari menghasilkan tenaga suria yang boleh digunakan untuk menjanakan kuasa elektrik di rumah kediaman. Tenaga suria digunakan untuk memanaskan air dengan menggunakan pemanas suria yang dipasang di atas bumbung-bumbung rumah. Teknologi moden telah mereka sel fotovolta atau dikenali sebagai sel suria yang berupaya mengubah tenaga cahaya matahari kepada tenaga elektrik. Suria akan menghasilkan tenaga yang murah dalam kuantiti yang banyak, juga menghasilkan bahan-bahan baru dan mungkin digunakan untuk memusnahkan kuman beracun. Tenaga cahaya matahari boleh ditukar menjadi tenaga elektrik secara terus dengan menggunakan sel suria. Dalam industri pertanian sel suria digunakan untuk memberi kuasa kepada pam air untuk menyalurkan air dari kolam ke ladang.



4. AIR

Tenaga dari aliran air sungai boleh digunakan untuk menggerakkan kincir air. Pada zaman dahulu tenaga dari aliran air sungai digunakan untuk mengerakkan kincir air untuk mengisar jagung. Kemudiannya penggunaannya diperluaskan ke kilang-kilang dan lombong. Jenis kincir air yang digunakan bergantung kepada kelajuan arus sungai.

Penggunaan kuasa air telah dimajukan dengan pelbagai cara. Contohnya, air digunakan untuk menjana kuasa elektrik. Air yang mengalir dengan kelajuan yang tinggi akan memusingkan bilah-bilah dalam yang melengkung pada turbin air dan seterusnya menjana kuasa elektrik. Elektrik yang dijanakan oleh air dipanggil hidroelektrik.

Kuasa hidroelektrik merupakan sumber tenaga yang besar kerana terdapat banyak sungai yang membolehkan pembinaan empangan serta penjanaan hidroelektrik dilakukan. Kebaikan kuasa hidroelektrik ialah menghasilkan tenaga yang berterusan dan harganya murah berbanding bahan api fosil. Namun begitu terdapat kekurangan hidroelektrik iaitu memerlukan pembinaan empangan yang besar bagi menempatkan air untuk dialirkan ke turbin. Ini akan melibatkan kos yang tinggi dan mengganggu keseimbangan ekosistem dan alam sekitar.

THE FACT

COUNTRY POPULATION (largest)(February, 2006 numbers)

1.China 1,306,313,800
2.India 1,080,264,400
3.USA 295,734,100
4.Indonesia 241,973,900
5.Brazil 186,112,800
6.Pakistan 162,419,900
7.Bangladesh 144,319,600
8.Russia 143,420,300
9.Nigeria 128,772,000
10.Japan 127,417,200

COUNTRY POPULATION (smallest)(February, 2006 numbers)

1.Vatican City 920
2.Tuvalu 11,640
3.Nauru 13,050
4.Palau 20,300
5.San Marino 28,880
6.Monaco 32,410
7.Liechtenstein 33,720
8.St. Kitts 38,960
9.Marshall Islands 59,070
10.Antigua and Barbuda 68,720

COUNTRIES (Highest Density)(people per square km)

1.Monaco 16,205
2.Singapore 6,386
3.Malta 1,261
4.Maldives 1,164
5.Bahrain 1,035
6.Bangladesh 1,002
7.Vatican City 920
8.Barbados 648
9.Nauru 621
10.Mauritius 603

COUNTRIES (Lowest Density)(people per square km)

1.Mongolia 2
2.Namibia 2
3.Australia 3
4.Botswana 3
5.Iceland 3
6.Suriname 3
7.Libya 3
8.Mauritania 3
9.Canada 3
10.Guyana 4


LARGEST CITIES ON THE PLANET!

Numbers shown are the population within the recognized city limits, and do not include people living in the immediate surrounding area outside of the established border of the city. For the largest metropolitan areas refer to the list below this one.Revised (10/01/04)

1.Shanghai, China 13.3 million
2.Mumbai (Bombay), India 12.6 million
3.Buenos Aires, Argentina 11.92 million
4.Moscow, Russia 11.3 million
5.Karachi, Pakistan 10.9 million
6.Delhi, India 10.4 million
7.Manila, Philippines 10.3 million
9.Sao Paulo, Brazil 10.26 million
10.Seoul, South Korea 10.2 million
11.Istanbul, Turkey 9.6 million
12.Jakarta, Indonesia 9.0 million
13.Mexico City, Mexico 8.7 million
14.Lagos, Nigeria 8.68 million
15.Lima, Peru 8.38 million
16.Tokyo, Japan 8.3 million
17.New York City, USA 8.09 million
18.Cairo, Egypt 7.6 million
19.London, UK 7.59 million
20.Teheran, Iran 7.3 million
21.Beijing, China 7.2 million

LARGEST METRO AREAS IN THE WORLD
Numbers shown are the population within the immediate surrounding area of the established border of the city, and also include the city limit population figures. Revised (09/05)

1.Toyko, Japan 31.2 million
2.New York City - Philadelphia area, USA 30.1 million
3.Mexico City, Mexico 21.5 million
4.Seoul, South Korea 20.15 million
5.Sao Paulo, Brazil 19.9 million
6.Jakarta, Indonesia 18.2 million
7.Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto, Japan 17.6 million
8.New Delhi, India 17.36 million
9.Mumbai, India (Bombay) 17.34 million
10.Los Angeles, USA 16.7 million
11.Cairo, Egypt 15.86 million
12.Calcutta, India 14.3 million
13.Manila, Philippines 14.1 million
14.Shanghai, China 13.9 million
15.Buenos Aires, Argentina 13.2 million
16.Moscow, Russian Fed. 12.2 million

Hottest,Coldest,Driest,Wettest

1.Hottest Place Dalol, Denakil Depression, Ethiopia, annual average temperature (93.2°F, 34°C)
2.Coldest Place Plateau Station, Antarctica, annual average temperature (-56.7°C)
3.Wettest Place Mawsynram, Assam, India, annual average rainfall (11,873 mm, 467.4")
4.Driest Place Atacama Desert, Chile, imperceptible rainfall on a yearly basis

HIGHEST/LOWEST SURFACE POINTS
(Below Sea Level, On Each Continent)

1.Dead Sea, Asia -409 meters
2.Lake Assal, Africa -156 meters
3.Death Valley, North America -86 meters
4.Valdés Peninsula, South America -40 meters
5.Caspian Sea, Europe -28 meters
6.Lake Eyre, Australia -16 meters
7.Antarctica (ice covered) -2,538 meters